Using Healthcare Data For Decision Making

Question: Examine about the Using Healthcare Data For Decision Making. Answer: Presentation The data in the medicinal services calling is reliably observed regarding information quality, coding and documentation to give an affirmation of consistence and repayment of the human services gauges. As the expense to social insurance rise it makes an expansion buyer needs, and furthermore development of the new purchaser needs. It is indispensable for the modern social insurance calling to guarantee there is an assessment of patterns and advancement of human services frameworks. The frameworks should be proficient and compelling just as moderate both for the social insurance suppliers and the customers. Great dynamic ought to be founded on the exactness of value data. The social insurance experts are constantly ensuring that the data it is basic for the fate of the medicinal services suppliers. The human services suppliers create and gather information for using sound judgment. There is an expansion of information assortment which requires a programmed route for it to be extricated, when it is required (Hesse, et al. 2011). When utilizing information for dynamic it is entirely conceivable to locate a reasonable and exact choice which is helpful for human services offices. Utilizing information for dynamic is helpful in controlling customers impediments, for example, blunder and subjectivity because of weakness, and furthermore arrangement of clear signs for dynamic procedure. The pith of utilizing information in the human services area is a sign for models, relations and examples which offer help for the procedure of dynamic, for example, treatment arranging and findings. These models are prescient, and coordinated into the medical clinics data frameworks as models for dynamic, which is a method of diminishing subjectivity. In this manner, this paper will talk about the strategy for utilizing the human services information for dynamic, the outcomes or the discoveries of the technique, conversation and proposal behind the technique and end. Foundation The exploration examination depends on information investigated and introduced by Australian UTS Online Public Hospital situated in New South Wales. The point of report is to utilize social insurance information in tending to issues identified with diabetes Mellitus and think of appropriate choice (Assal, 2013). This infection is known as diabetes which includes a gathering of metabolic maladies that have a high glucose level. Utilizing human services information for dynamic is significant when giving a report on how diabetes has spread in Australia (Hibbard, Slovic and Jewett, 2009). Presently in Australia, there is no national medicinal services information for estimating and checking the patterns of diabetes mellitus. The information and data delivered depends on the report of Australian open Hospital. This medical clinic delivers issues identified with diabetes mellitus. Between 1989-90 the level of those detailed experiencing diabetes mellitus multiplied from 1.5% to 4.2%, be that as it may, the rate stayed steady in the year 2007-2008. Accordingly, in this paper the investigation will be founded on the UTS emergency clinic information which will push the Australia to thoroughly kill diabetes mellitus (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2009). The online UTS report discharged mid 2016 demonstrated that the eating regimens of the Australians are going descending, as lousy nourishment was accounted for the fundamental driver of diabetes mellitus (Gracey and King, 2009). This raised the countrys score up 10 focuses; this would enable the nation to direct against developing way of life ailments, for example, heart ailments and control expanded pace of heftiness (Kopelman, 2013) Current Prevalence and occurrence of diabetic mellitus in Australia Current affirmation and the length of remain Table 1: Showing affirmations and length of remain Segment With Diabetes Without diabetes No. of those took an interest 23, 779 239, 703 Affirmations All out no. of confirmations 16,692 107,343 Day by day 10,231 75,197 At some point 6,460 32,145 No. of those conceded All 7,807=32.8 57,970 =24.2 Initial 1 occasion 1,034 =4.3 7,752 =3.2 Rule cause 710 =3.0 - Diabetes as ACSC2 1,744 =7.3 - The above table 1 shows the pace of affirmation diabetic mellitus in Australia was 9.0% of23,779. The rates for confirmation of the members, 454.48 and 631.3 each 1000 and absolute mean of the length of remain was 7.1 and 8.2 for those without and with individually. Both the patient the hazard was identified with family unit pay, sexual orientation, BMI, age, smoking and physical exercises. In ebb and flow pattern Diabetes is a scourge ailment, it is the greatest test looked by Australian wellbeing foundations (Zimmet, Alberti and Shaw, 2015). This ailment is one of the interminable ailments in Australia, for example, malignant growth and heart illnesses that are becoming quick. All the sorts of diabetes are expanding in recurrence, for instance type 1 diabetes represents about 10% expansion, type 2 records for 85% and growth diabetes is additionally expanding in pregnant ladies (Moses, et al. 2011) ii) Approaches utilized in diminishing the length of remain Patients with urgent issues or the individuals who don't react well as far as glucose control to the underlying treatment system ought to get alluded to unique diabetic staff. So as to decrease the length of remain in clinic of diabetic patients, there must be explicit conventions drawn for those patients conceded because of intense diabetes. The diabetic patients experience fundamental appraisal which is finished by the medical attendants (De Berardis, et al. 2012). The evaluation is significant, in light of the fact that those patients who have stable diabetes ordinarily are not seen except if their circumstances begin to break down. This permits the medical caretakers to deal with the feeble patients and not steady dietetically. This decreases their season of remain in the medical clinics. In any case, where there is consistency among the pros it obviously proposes that the post itself will uncovered great impacts. The target of the post is to guarantee that diabetic patients have great control during their stay in the medical clinic (Aro, 2013). Because of this impact, there is instruction, for example, dietary exhortation, for the diabetic patients as indicated by each patient needs, with suitable types of gear (Holmes, et al. 2014). Information examination plan of the UTS The following is the information examination for the Australian medicinal services for dynamic. The tables obviously represents people qualities applicable to diabetes mellitus Table 2: UTS information examination of the profile careful patients profile Diabetes No diabetes members 23,779 % 239,703 % Sexual orientation Male 13,393 56.3 108,589 45.3 Female 10,386 43.7 131,114 54.7 Age gathering 45-59 6,698 28.2 115,733 48.3 60-74 11,143 46.9 86,102 35.9 75 5,935 25.0 37,850 15.8 Table 2 above sums up that the individuals who had diabetes were male who are matured between 65 to 74 years. The men were conceived in a remote nation, not finished the tenth year of tutoring, they live a cooperative which is burdened and have residential pay of $20,000 when contrasted with those without. Those without were probably going to be less large, coronary illness, sadness. iii) Diagnosis of auxiliary and essential Table 3: Showing auxiliary and essential determinations profile With Diabetes without diabetes No. of members 23, 779 % 239, 703 % Sexual orientation of members Male members 13, 393 56.3 108, 589 45.3 Female members 10, 386 43.7 131, 114 54.7 Period of members 45 to 59 6, 698 28.2 115, 733 48.3 60 to 74 11, 143 46.9 86, 102 35.9 75 5,935 25.0 37, 850 15.8 The above table 3 shows the pace of affirmation diabetic mellitus in Australia was 9.0% of 23,779. The confirmation rates for the members were 454.48 and 631.3 per 1000 and all out mean of the length of remain was 7.1 and 8.2 for those without and with individually. Both the patient the hazard was identified with the family unit salary, age, BMI, smoking, sex, physical exercises and wellbeing. Discoveries The UTS found that the hazard for hospitalization was because of smoking, sexual orientation, age, wellbeing, physical action, prosperity (Aro, et al. 2013). The hazard was lessened the individuals who are more established and had diabetes and they were probably going to hypertension, hefty, hyperlipidaemia, this improved those members with diabetes mellitus were likely men, current smokers or those had discouragement. Lethargic diabetes mellitus in grown-ups gradually may create like sort 1 diabetes. As per the examination done by medicinal services suppliers who utilized social insurance information for dynamic, determination of diabetes mellitus for the most part happens following a time of 30 years. The beta cells are devastated by resistance of the body. During analyze, those people with immune system diabetes produce their own insulin, yet the majority of them require insulin siphons to keep the glucose at the typical level. Conversation The UTS online emergency clinic in Australia utilized human services information for dynamic. The emergency clinic saw that wedded diabetic patients had lower pace of metabolic disorder and BMI when contrasted with widows or single patients. Besides, the individuals who remained along with their life partners were 58% likely not to create diabetic disorder and half less to get overweight (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2009) The finding existed considerably after there was an alteration for diabetic term, sex and age. The individual who is in a condition of single

Faculty Evaluation System Essay Example for Free

Workforce Evaluation System Essay A workforce assessment framework which is introduced in our school is of incredible use to assess the staff execution and their self improvement simultaneously. The worth included framework introduced set up takes contribution of different inputs given by the understudies as well as by different resources. The different inputs and prompts are promoted upon for choosing value of the workforce. It in general supports the resources and guarantees better concentration towards innovative work. The personnel assessment framework considers the accompanying: 1. It assesses the resources on their exhibition, their trustworthiness, their adherence to rules and guidelines, their distribution of diaries and commitment towards explore papers. 2. The inputs are in different structures, more probable in regions prospectus inclusion, advancement, examination, contextual analysis approaches, conduct and disposition (Bowers, 2005). 3. The different proposals and inputs would guarantee an adjustment in the attribute of the individual for the improvement of the individual and the general public on the loose. The shocking certainty is the acknowledgment of the framework in the school as it cultivates improvement as well as guarantees advancement and creation of a pioneer in each being. The investigation of the inputs is assessed to a huge degree by the framework and the information assessment is done very well. The unique component is the pattern examination for the exhibition of the workforce and the very chart of execution is taken up. The framework is planned in a very much organized way for bringing enormous scope investigation of the different turns of events and guarantees that correct following is made conceivable (Arreola, 2003). References/Bibliography Arreola, A Raoul (2003). Building up a Comprehensive Faculty Evaluation System, Educational Psychology from Arizona State University. Thickets K. John (2005). Issues in Developing a Faculty Evaluation System. Recovered 16, January 2009 from http://www. springerlink. com/list/X712557731J2WN54. pdf.

What to Avoid When Writing a Paper

What to Avoid When Writing a Paper (1) Do you ever find yourself staring at a blank computer screen, trying to summon the words you need to finish a paper? Do you sometimes re-read a paragraph you just wrote and wonder “What am I even saying?” Do you wish your paper would write itself and that you hadn’t procrastinated? Writing papers doesn’t have to be this way! When you have a solid game plan for whenever you have to write a paper, it can be a breeze. If you avoid the following mistakes when writing a paper, you’ll wonder why you ever struggled in the first place. If you need extra peace of mind, run your paper through the EasyBib Plus plagiarism and grammar checker to catch potential errors and receive suggestions on how to improve your paper. Enrich your writing with the EasyBib grammar guides and learn more about your basic adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs! 1. Avoid procrastinating I’ll be the first to say that this advice is cliche and overshared, but it’s so easy to leave assignments untouched until the last minute. Here’s one way to help ensure you don’t procrastinate again. Whenever I’m assigned a paper, I break down the process into four stages: The brainstorm stage The outline stage The 1st draft stage The revision stage Depending on the paper length, I’ll calculate how long it’ll take me to do each stage. I then look at the due date and figure out when I can do each stage. Let’s look at an example together. Let’s say you have a five-page paper that’s assigned on a Monday and due next week Friday. That’s about 12 days. Step 1: Let’s schedule one day to brainstorm ideas, arguments, and sources. Step 2: Then we’ll plan for one more day to outline the paper. Step 3: If you can write about 2.5 pages a day, then you’ll need two days to write a 1st draft (for 5 pages total). Step 4: Finally, let’s allot two more days to do revisions. That’s a total of six days. Between the day the paper was assigned and when it is due, pick six days when you know you have free time to work on the paper. This process will help prevent you from realizing at 11pm the night before the due date that you have to write five pages from scratch! Everyone works at a different pace, so adjust the timeline accordingly. You’ll notice that I don’t just tell myself that I’m going to write one page a day. That’s because by taking the time to properly brainstorm and outline, the writing process itself is very easy. It also allows you to ensure that the paper is cohesive. 2. Avoid jumping straight into writing your paper Never start writing without a game plan. By taking the time to thoroughly prep before typing a single word, you’ll find that writing the paper itself will be the easiest part! When it comes to the four stages of writing, it may seem like too much time is spent on the brainstorming and outline stages. But by front-loading the work, you find yourself essentially just translating outlines into paragraphs. To brainstorm effectively, make what’s called a mind map. Start by getting a piece of paper and writing down the prompt in the middle of the page. I then jot down the relevant concepts, different perspectives, and multiple sources around the prompt. After that, draw lines in between these components to flesh out relationships. Once you’re done, you’ll have a web of connected ideas! After brainstorming, it’s time to come up with a thesis. From there, try writing your outline. You can start by figuring out how many paragraphs you’ll need. Then take a look at your mind map and determine how you want the ideas in the paper to flow. Once you identify the major concept you want to tackle in each paragraph, fill in the details of that paragraph (i.e. Note which ideas, arguments, and sources you’ll want to include along with some of your own analysis). You’ll find that this outline will be so thorough that it’s essentially your paperâ€"it just isn’t formatted into your usual paragraphs. 3. Avoid repeating facts and not analyzing them We know you’re smart. You know it, too. But no one reading your paperâ€"like your teacherâ€"will know if you don’t express your thoughts. A common writing mistake is to “parrot” ideas from readings and not analyze them. Even if you can synthesize different arguments, it’s important to actually comment on how and why you came up with your points. By demonstrating deep analysis, you can elevate your paper and help ensure that you get a good grade! To avoid parroting facts, a simple trick is to have your commentary sentences start with phrases that set you up to do analysis. For example, when you use phrases like: “The author’s argument illuminates how…” “This data illustrates…” “These ideas exemplify…” you’re forced to comment on the argument, data, or ideas. Set yourself up for success with phrases like these! 4. Avoid citing just one source or a limited number of sources An MLA Works Cited page with just one source is unbalanced and kind of boring. Unless your teacher requires you to analyze only one author, you want to show that you’ve dissected multiple perspectives on your paper’s topic. That way, you have a well-rounded paper. The best way to do this is simple: do your class readings. That way, when the time comes to write your paper, you’re already armed with lots of arguments. When you’re in the brainstorming and outline stages of writing your paper, another way to have diverse resources is to start by determining which readings in your syllabus are relevant to your essay. You can then assign each reading a notecard. From there, jot down that reading’s key arguments and examples. Once you’re done, you can spread out your notecards and see what you need from your readings and how you can use them in you paper. What’s great about using notecards is that you can shuffle them around and start thinking about the order in which you want to include these readings in your paper. 5. Avoid Not Citing Sources Until The End Citing sources (usually in MLA or APA format) as you research and write ensures that you don’t miss any sources you’ve used or mentioned. Also, don’t forget to include APA or MLA in-text citations when you write about information from a source. This will help ensure that you’re writing ethically. Plus, it’s no fun going back and trying to figure out who said what. Be sure to cite while you write! By planning ahead, writing a strong outline, genuinely analyzing arguments, and using multiple sources, you can avoid some of the most common mistakes when it comes to writing a paper!

The Cost of Higher Education Essay - 2987 Words

Introduction The increasing cost of higher education in the United States has been a continuing topic for debate in recent decades. American society emphasizes the importance of education after high school, yet the cost of undergraduate and advanced degrees continually rises at a greater rate than inflation. According to the Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance, cost factors prevent 48% of college-qualified high school graduates from pursuing further education (McKeon, 2004, p. 45). The current system requires the majority of students to accumulate extensive debt with the expectation that they gain lucrative post-graduate employment to repay their loans. The cost of higher education raises several ethical issues.†¦show more content†¦73) Since the mid 1980s, student fees have increased at a rate approximately double the rate of inflation (Hauptman, 1997, p. 24). A 1996 study by the General Accounting Office indicates a 234 percent increase in tuition and fees at public institutions and a 220 percent increase at private universities since 1980. This compares to an 80 percent increase in inflation since 1980 (Barry, 1998, p. 39). Families today spend a considerably larger percentage of their family income on college than families two decades ago. In 1979, the average four-year tuition at a public college consumed approximately 36 percent of a family’s annual income, while a private university consumed 84 percent. By 1994, the percentages jumped to 60 and 156 respectively (Reiland, 1996, p. 36). In addition to increases in tuition, an attitude shift in regard to paying for college contributes to the problem of financing higher education. Parents today are more likely to budget college expenses out of their annual income instead of from savings, and students are expected to contribute more to financing their own education than in the past (Kiesler, 1994, p. 67). Institutions of higher learning inShow MoreRelatedThe Cost of Higher Education754 Words   |  3 Pages For most high school seniors the cost of higher education may be a daily or at least. It is an even a concern in that a group of students, who all share a common, concern, around the same age, but with no reliable income. Each one is making a huge investment in their future, but in majority of cases adding more and more debt to their lifestyles. Though majority of students receive financial aid, the amount of debt which tuition builds is beyond stressing. For some students relying on their familyRead MoreThe Cost Of A Higher Education958 Words   |  4 PagesAll through life, most children are told that getting a higher education is the only way to have a successful life. Each year the cost of college rises, with that the total student debt rises as more students take out loans to help pay for his or her education. An astounding 1.2 trillion dollars is the United States student debt amount, and every year it continues to grow. (Investor’s Business, 2015, p. A14). According t o new reports, 27.3% of student loans are delinquent and that on average a student’sRead MoreThe Cost Of Higher Education1100 Words   |  5 PagesOver the past four decades, the costs of higher education has risen at a rate that surpasses the rate on inflation. Students, parents, and policymakers are concern about the rapid increase. The literature supports that there are multiple trends such as a decline in federal and state support as well as outdated policies and practices that have contributed to continued rise. Thelin (2015) analyzed Edwin Slosson’s 1910 anthology on Great American Universities, which provided data on fourteen prominentRead MoreThe Cost Of Higher Education898 Words   |  4 PagesThe cost of higher education College institutions offer a wide range of degrees and certificates, ranging from associate degrees to post-doctorates. A bachelors degree is another name for a 4-year degree, and such can be given in a wide variety of fields of study. According to the Digest of Education Statistics, during 2012 and 2013 more than 1,8 million bachelor degrees were conferred to college students in 34 different fields of study. So, prior to defining the cost of education, there is a needRead MoreThe Cost Of Higher Education Essay1296 Words   |  6 PagesKarla Fiscal-Zatarain Communications M01 Ben Bates 28 July 2015 The Cost of Higher Education General Purpose: To persuade. Specific Purpose: To persuade the audience that the cost of a higher education is too high and should be lowered to a much reasonable price. Central Idea: The cost to attend universities has skyrocketed over the past few decades and because of this, many students have chosen to skip out or put it off because they simply can’t afford it. Introduction: Attention Getter: On NovemberRead MoreHigher Education Costs And Education983 Words   |  4 Pages Higher Education Costs Education, there should be no class distinction. Education should be provided to all, irrespective of their economic, social or religious backgrounds. Education is defined as gaining knowledge which is funded by the government or charity organizations for awareness, charity, religious, or any other motives. It’s like an investment which helps to build the economy in the long run rather than a way of getting short-term inceptives from students.Read MoreThe Cost Of Higher Education Essay2074 Words   |  9 PagesHow to Combat the Cost of Rising Higher Education The cost of higher education is on the rise in the United States of America (USA). â€Å"Technology tends to unbundle stuff. Look how it’s unbundling television, or how it unbundled the music album. The college degree is a bundle that doesn’t work for everybody and creates unnatural market conditions, which is why college costs consistently rise faster than inflation.† (Newsweek) The cost of higher education tuition is skyrocketing throughout the USARead MoreThe Cost Of Higher Education2006 Words   |  9 PagesThe Cost of Higher Education Has Resulted in Extreme Student Loan Debt, How Do We Reverse This Cycle? During high school we are often told that higher education is essentially a precursor to achieving success in the workforce, meaning that your success is dependent upon earning a degree. We are also told that higher education is the key to â€Å"happiness† because it is clear that both a fulfilling and lucrative career is a direct representation of success. Sometimes parents, teachers, and guidance counselorsRead MoreThe Cost Of Higher Education Essay2115 Words   |  9 PagesThe cost of higher education is on the rise in the United States of America (USA). â€Å"Technology tends to unbundle stuff. Look how it’s unbundling television, or how it unbundled the music album. The college degree is a bundle that doesn’t work for everybody and creates unnatural market conditions, which is why college costs consistently rise faster than inflation.† (Newsweek) The cost of higher education tuition is skyrocketing throughout the USA. Imagine being a lower class fami ly, both you and yourRead MoreThe Cost Of Higher Education3697 Words   |  15 PagesThe cost of higher education is constantly rising and does not look to be stopping anytime soon. However, many individuals are concerned about the increasing cost and have little understanding as to why these costs are increasing despite the increasing revenue stream of many colleges and universities. Additionally, taking in consideration the current cost compared to the past 5 to 10 years is very important when addressing this issue. As the cost of a college degree increases it is becoming harder

The Standard Economic Theory ( Robbins ) - 3306 Words

Traditionally, standard economic theory (Robbins 1930) dictates that time-use is allocated between labor and leisure; however, Kimmel and Connelly point out this model simply does not hold true for mothers. Kimmel and Connelly posit that mothers presumably face another category of household work, separated into caregiving time and household production. Kimmel and Connelly modify this economic model to expand the time-use choices of mothers to include five various categories: labor (paid market work), leisure, home production, caregiving time (parental childcare), and other (sleeping, education, etc.—which will be ignored from here on out since personal care time is too diverse to calculate). The distinction of household work into two†¦show more content†¦. .† which causes mothers to allocate more time to childcare than household production (p. 667). These findings open up discussion of mothers’ time-use as it relates to the price of childcare, which would have important considerations and implications for policymakers. Hoffman examines the effect of children and marriage on women’s labor force participation between the years of 1984 and 2004 using data from the Current Population Survey (CPS). The data is valuable since it looks at the same years as recent work by Boushey of the Center for Economic and Policy Research, which suggested that the negative impact of children on mothers’ labor force participation has actually declined. Moreover, the sample sizes analyzed by Hoffman are large varying between 56,000 and 70,000 women 25-44 years old. Using a regression analysis, Hoffman’s various models allow for the interaction of marriage with children with the year to be taken into account. Hoffman is thus â€Å"able to compare the labor force participation of single women with children to single women without children . . . and married women with children to married women without children† (p. 8). Hoffman concludes that the negative impact of children on women’s labor force participation is almost the same as it was back in 1984 in that â€Å"children reduced the labor forceShow MoreRelatedWhat was Frederick Taylors most significant contribution to management?1185 Words   |  5 Pagesvarious wage and bonus incentive plans, an array of techniques for measuring work input and output, and an ideology of authority in organisation. Understandably, this new core and field of management has attracted many critics who claimed that the theory dehumanises and exploit workers. However, Taylors impact on management cannot be denied. Many current management practices are influenced and guided, either consciously or subconsciously, by these traditional concepts. It is also impossible to faultRead MoreClassical Management Theories1568 Words   |  7 Pagesmodels and theories. From the turn of the 20th Century, the need for a formal management theory was growing evident; organisa tions required a system to guide managers in an attempt to improve productivity and efficiency of workers. This urgency for a theory saw the development of six major management approaches, the focus of this essay will be on two of the classical management theories; the scientific management theory and the human relations movement. The contributions of both these theories will beRead MoreEssay about Classical Management Theories1523 Words   |  7 Pagesmodels and theories. From the turn of the 20th Century, the need for a formal management theory was growing evident; organisations required a system to guide managers in an attempt to improve productivity and efficiency of workers. This urgency for a theory saw the development of six major management approaches, the focus of this essay will be on two of the classical management theories; the scientific management theory and the human relations movement. The contributions of both these theories will beRead MoreOrganization Commitment and Communication Essay1632 Words   |  7 Pages2011 Mike Ballif Nordstrom, Inc.: Organization Commitment and Communication Leadership of an organization sets the tone for communication in and out of the organization. This paper will discuss leadership styles, bases of power and motivational theories as they pertain to Nordstrom, Inc. and other organizations. Publius Syrus, wrote, â€Å"The greater a man is in power above others, the more he ought to excel them in virtue. None ought to govern who is not better than the governed.† Although this wasRead MoreHonda Motor Co., Ltd3431 Words   |  14 PagesGoals 4 Strategic goals 4 Tactical goals 4 Operational goals 4 Organization culture 4 Intrinsic aspect 4 Extrinsic aspect 5 Business Ethics and Social Responsibility 5 Integrated Social Contrct 5 Socio-economic view 5 Problem-solving and Decision-making 6 Problem identify 6 Performance deficiency problem 6 Decision-making program 6 Figure 1: Market Quality enhancement system in Honda Motor Co., Ltd 7 Control function 7 ControlRead MoreTheoretical Perspectives and Research1441 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Modern, post-modern, critical theory and symbolic-interpretive are four different perspectives that provides different ways to analyse and understand organisations, however this essay shall focus on two perspectives, namely the modern and critical theory. These two perspectives have different views on concepts that might appear similar, thus this essay shall examine the different stands they each take. Concepts that can be examined include, power, control and conflict, organisationalRead MoreTheoretical Perspectives and Research1448 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Modern, post-modern, critical theory and symbolic-interpretive are four different perspectives that provides different ways to analyse and understand organisations, however this essay shall focus on two perspectives, namely the modern and critical theory. These two perspectives have different views on concepts that might appear similar, thus this essay shall examine the different stands they each take. Concepts that can be examined include, power, control and conflict, organisationalRead MoreAffirmative Action On Equal Rights1655 Words   |  7 Pagespeople who share similar characteristics and values. It means that if every owner of wages employed qualified workers from their racial or cultural background, the minorities with fewer sources of capital would always be subjugated in the society. The economic properties of a capitalist society emphasize on merit rather than social position. If this property is upheld in all cases, the advantaged will always prevail at all levels of soc ioeconomic activities. Therefore, affirmative action evens the employmentRead MoreWhy The Behavioral Theory Is Better For Success Of Teams1632 Words   |  7 Pagesmanagement thought, especially the scientific management and the organisational behaviour theories, which elevates efficiency by enriching the connection between the work and the worker, has been a key contributor, this is often untrue when theory is applied to real life. This essay will discuss why the behavioural theory is better suited when success of teams is considered and how the scientific management theory limits the team’s freedom and capacity to succeed by relating to the factors which influenceRead MorePrinciples of the Human Relations Movement1504 Words   |  7 PagesBureaucracy, Mayo claimed that scientifically clarified rules, strict work procedure and incentive money payments were not the only stimulus to inspire workers and that they were â€Å"less factors in determining output than were group standards, sentiments and security† (Robbins, Millett Waters-Marsh, 2004, p.815-816) after he proceeded an experiment, called the ‘Hawthorne Experiment’. According to the Hawthorne Studies, employees were motivated to work harder and efficiently when managers provided a

The Basic Principles of Reganomics Free Essays

The election of the Regan-Bush Republican ticket of 1984 brought many unprecedented and controversial policies to the US economy. Many of these policies,including Reganomics still affect our economy as a whole and are still major points of debates today. Reganomics was not solely based on economics, but rather the included a sense of having moral foundations. We will write a custom essay sample on The Basic Principles of Reganomics or any similar topic only for you Order Now Government intervention and regulation of the economy were seen as economically harmful and furthermore morally wrong. It was believed that economic affairs should be left to the wisdom of God and his guidance would produce a The moral obligation together with extreme Kenseyan theories were the guide to the basic principles of Reganomics. Their objective was to follow a laissez faire attitude,or a hands off government policy. They also wanted to rely on the wisdom of the of the market, meaning that the market is smart enough to take care of and troubleshoot itself,and they tried to use a policy of deregulation which would allow companies to make their own economic decisions with out the government limiting their choices. The administration was also weary of anti-trust laws which did not allow for monopolies in The â€Å"deregulation of businesses† mentality was simple and encompassed two major points. The points were to lower taxes and allow businesses to make their own decisions without fear of government intervention. Their idea was that if you lowered taxes in general, business would have more money to produce more, to more they would hire more workers, and consequently due to the surplus of money, their would be more spending, investing, and saving. This proves that individuals would gain along with the business. Ronald Regan said, â€Å"Lower takes would spur business to invest, and send Americans rushing to stores to spend† (Regan). In the short run deregulation produced greater competition and lower prices for consumers. The long term effects were that the savings and loan industry collapsed due to fraud and mis-management. Regan knew that deregulation could possibly have adverse effects if there was no degree of regulation at all, so preventative measures were set in place. One such preventative measure was the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (O. I. R. A) which insured that deregulation dhered to cost benefit principles to the maximum extent possible. â€Å"If government is the problem, not the solution, you do not solve problems by applying a bigger problem to them† (Regan). Another notion behind Reganomics was the Laffer Curve, which conveyed the idea that tax cuts would increase tax revenue. The Laffer Curve is based on the ideology that government should provide a climate in which the incentives for individuals to pursue their own economic progress wouldn†t be hindered by governmental taxing, spending, regulations, and/or monetary policies. It is also based on supply side economics. Supply side economics was an economic policy designed to stimulate output and lower unemployment by increasing production in the economy. It allowed the free market to play a greater role in the economy while the government took on a lesser role. â€Å"If government is the problem, not the solution, you do not solve problems by applying a bigger problem to them† (Regan). The Regan administration believed tax and spend policies led to a weak economy. Accordingly, they passed the Tax Reform Act of 1986 (TRA86) which reduced individual income tax liabilities and raised corporate income tax liabilities. They also passed ERTS. ERTA gave a 25% cut in individual marginal tax rates over a three year period. It set an indexing of individual brackets, personal exemptions, and standard reductions; it reduced all individual taxpayers taxes, and gave percentage reductions for lower and middle class incomes exceeding those given for the rich. Bill Clinton said, â€Å"For 12 years the driving dea behind American economic policy has been cutting takes on the richest individuals and corporations†¦ â€Å". This is true, with the exception of ERTA, all the tax changes during the eight years of Reagan†s administration were unmistakably pro-business and When Reagan cut the taxes for wealthy individuals and business† he believed that it would contribute to a stronger base economy, in turn the benefits of a strong base economy would â€Å"trickle down† to reach everyone, even the poorest Americans. Ronald Reagan said, â€Å"Lower taxes would spur business to invest, and send Americans rushing to stores to spend† (Regan). The Reagan Administration believed lower taxes were beneficiary in this manor and high tax rates only further darkened the lines on how our society was typecast, rather than break down those barriers. Furthermore high tax rates inhibited social mobility into the upper class. â€Å"The real losers from soak the rich tax are not the rich, but the would be rich. † This is true because there would be no trickle down Major elements in the initial Regan policies were spending slow downs aimed at eliminating budget deficits in 1984 and producing budget surpluses thereafter. As well it was aimed to slow down the growth of federal outlays and change their composition. However the initial policies of the Reagan administration coupled with stock market changes were so bold and dramatic that it caused the 1981 – 1982 recession. After be in a state of recession, things did get better. Within 18 months of Reagans term, poverty began to decrease. The U. S also experienced an unprecedented export boom in the 1980†³s which turned out to be the longest economic boom in U. S history. Along with this came 20 million new jobs and it was the first time the electorate ad an intensely satisfied voting majority. † Reagan was the only U. S. president since WWII to reduce both inflation and unemployment while expanding the total number of jobs for all Americans† (Dunn) However when this great prosperity was acquired in such a short period of time, people got nervous and began to make false accusations against the Reagan administration which were called myths. Myths were created by economists that either did not look at all the statistics or made assumptions before they had all of the statistics. Some of the myths that came from these economists were that Reaganomics caused Americans to divest and de-industrialize. There were also presumptions that every dollar of taxes that were cut would lose a dollar of revenue. They also offered that record deficits were caused by the reduction in marginal tax rates. There is no basis for insisting that tax policy developments were responsible for the budget deficits of the Reagan years. (Ture 35) Some myths created even went so far as to say that the deficits were deliberate in order to reduce social spending while increasing defense spending. In fact the contrary is true. Transfer payment spending for social services rose 19. 7%, from $344. 3 billion to $412 billion, on programs that provided income, food, healthcare, housing, education and training, and social services to poor families. (Ture 39) This is proving that social programs were not hurt under Reagan. Economists also gave the impression that Reagan policies favored the rich at the expense of the poor and that the rich only paid a larger shave of taxes because they had a larger share of income. This is not entirely true. Even though the rich may not have seemed to have paid more taxes they actually did buy investing in more taxable securities and fewer tax exempt securities. This produced more tax revenue. Rather than being a tax and spend economy, the Reagan administration lended itself to a borrow and spend economy that produced many deficits. What was the cause of these enormous debts? Many factors added to the accumulation of the debts. Buying and thus building up the U. S. dollar to an artificiallyhigh level made U. S exports more expensive, U. S imports cheaper and it added to the rade deficit and the foreign debt. This was also known as â€Å"Mexicanization† of the economy. (Galbraith 3) Large budget deficits from the loss of tax revenue, was brought about by the loss of real output during the 1981 – 1982 recession, and unanticipated disinflation. That fiscal year (after adjusting for inflation, tax collections did not increase) brought high interest rates which attracted foreign money. This pushed up the dollar and caused the trade deficit. The deficit was also caused by large defense and The Reagan administration had little responsibility for the budget deficits. The bills for spending that the Reagan administration originally proposed were altered by congress. The deficit was therefore caused by congress† permitted spending excess and not excess tax cuts. It seems that through supply-side economics savings didn†t increase but allowed for a huge growing debt that nearly tripled during Reagans administration. On the good side of things, deficit spending helped to stimulate demand and trigger economic recovery. It also stimulated a growth of employment in non-investment grade firms by 17. 3 million which was due to junk bonds. (Zycher,43) On the down side, the U. S is presently the worlds largest debtor. Public and Private debts carrying over from the past decade weigh heavily on the government,business†, household†s and financial institutions† well being. Reganomics could have been greatly successful if government spending would have been checked. â€Å"If government had borrowed in order to fund public capital, rather than military spending and tax breaks for the wealthy, the debt burden would be greatly reduced† (Sawicki). Looking back now we can truly understanding the full effects of Reganomics on our economy. How to cite The Basic Principles of Reganomics, Essay examples

Music and Evolution Essay Example

Music and Evolution Essay Music and evolution An evaluation of the selective pressures on the origins of music and language L. T. T. Hagemans Blok 3. 6 Bachelor thesis Begeleider: Dr. Harry Smit Universiteit Maastricht Faculteit der Psychologie Biologische afstudeerrichting ABSTRACT It is possible to survive without music. Therefore the origins of mu sic were not immediately considered to be an evolutionary adaptation relieving a specific selective pressure. However, cumulating evidence point to the biological significance of music. Musicality originates early in development, it can serve as a mood regulator, facilitates group cohesion and cooperation, and it affects pair bonding during sexual selection. Until recently these theories did not provide a complete and precise story of the how and when questions about the evolution of music. This study attends the question of possible selective pressures on the evolution of music. The latest theory called Hmmmmm communication incorporates the former theories and is supported by archaeological evidence dating the origins of music much further back in time. Hmmmmm communication implies a shared evolutionary ancestor of music and language, which signifies that one is not derivative of the other. During the evolutionary trajectory several important adaptations like bipedalism and reduced sexual dimorphism resulted in the gradational evolution of Hmmmmm communication that eventually split into the precursors of the language and music we are familiar with today. 2 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1 THE SCIENCE OF EVOLUTIONARY MUSICOLOGY . 6 1. 1 Types of evidence 7 1. 2 Pitfalls of an evolutionary theory of music .. 8 2 MUSIC AND LANGUAGE . 10 2. 1 Similarities concerning the human species and human society. 10 2. Similarities concerning the structure of language and music . 11 2. 3 Differences .. 12 2. 4 Independence between music and language .. 13 2. 5 Modularity of music and language 14 3 MUSIC AND EMOTION .. 16 3. Mother-infant communication of emotion . 16 3. 2 Musical communication of emotion . 17 3. 3 The emotional effects of music .. 17 4 SEXUAL SELECTION .. 19 4. 1 Mechanisms of sexual selection . 19 4. Miller’s wrong interpretation: problems with sexual selection of music .. 19 5 GROUP SELECTION . 21 5. 1 Group cohesion .. 21 5. 2 Mood synchronisation and cooperation .. 21 5. 3 Social bonding 2 6 HMMMMM THEORY 23 6. 1 Indirect selection pressures .. 23 6. 2 Bipedalism 23 6. 3 Singing Neanderthal hypothesis . 24 DISCUSSION . 6 REFERENCES 28 3 INTRODUCTION In reply to the question â€Å"what is music? † people are often inclined to answer that â€Å"music is the language of emotion†. Although this phrase has become a catchy cliche, we still know little about why it has a ny meaning to us humans. Intuitively it looks rather comprehensible but when we try to explain music we come into trouble. Why do we see music as a language and how can this non-sentient entity communicate the most profound emotions to us? We will write a custom essay sample on Music and Evolution specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Music and Evolution specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Music and Evolution specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer It is hard to define music considering the many diverging descriptions for it. Greek philosophers and medieval theorists defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies, and vertically as harmonies. But disagreement of music as being only pleasant melodies led future composers to explore darker, harsher, and afterwards atonal melodies. Later on contemporary composers even used noise as a way to make music, and according to them any sound could be seen as music. Musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990) states that even within a single society there is no consensus about the border between music and noise. Therefore, ‘there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be’. According to another (ethno)musicologist, Bruno Nettl (1983), music is ‘human sound communication outside t he scope of language’. This description covers a lot but then again it fails to define the artistic statement made by composer John Cage in 1952. His composition 4,33 consist of nothing but four and a half minutes of silence signifying that apart from soun d, silence is a key aspect of music. It is even harder to identify the origins of music. Considering the amount of effort and enjoyment we take in producing and listening to music one has to wonder how on earth all this brouhaha about the arrangement of so unds came to be. The old age and ubiquity of music demonstrate the inbred appreciation people have for music. But where does our predisposition to engage in music come from? When thinking about the origins of music it is tempting to assume an evolutionary explanation for it. After all, everything in nature that exists today must have had some adaptive value in the past otherwise it would not exist at all. The existence of music is all the more mysterious then, because it does not seem to serve any purpose in our survival or reproduction. This is presumably the reason for the considerable controversy surrounding the questions of the origin, biological significance, and function of music. Steven Pinker (1997) argues that music is nothing more than ‘auditory cheesecake’, an evolutionary spin-off from language. In addition to Pinker, David Huron (2001) questioned the evolutionary origins of 4 music and underlined the post hoc argumentation of evolutionary theorizing. He also points out the complex genesis of music evolution and agrees with a premusical adaptation but also suggests a co-evolution with culture. Although not very convinced of an evolutionary theory for music, Huron argues that music can facilitate social bonding. In contrast, Charles Darwin (1871) ar gued for music as a biological adaptation in sexual selection. Geoffrey Miller (2000) amplified Darwin’s sexual selection theory emphasizing the fact that music production is highest during adolescence at the time when males are most active in human courtship. The most promising hypothesis is the ‘Hmmmmm’ theory from cognitive archaeologist Steven Mithen (2005). Hmmmmm stands for Holistic, multi-modal, manipulative, music mimetic and is thought to be the common evolutionary ancestor of language and music. Although several researchers (e. g. Brown, 2000; Wray, 2002) have set an example for the idea of a precursory proto or musilanguage, Mithen’s hypothesis provides a more complete picture combining data from multiple disciplines with archaeological evidence. In order to understand more about the origins of music it is vital to spend a great deal of notice to the evolution of language, but it could also work the other way around. Either way the parallel study of language and music can make a large contributio n to the advance in science in contrast to dealing with them separately. Also, more and more studies are beginning to show the practical benefits of music therapy for mental and physical health. Furthermore, music has positive effects on mood, learning and creativity. Therefore, knowledge of the origins of music can be of great use to science and society. It is a great mystery that although we could easily survive without music it has such a big impact on our emotions. It has the power to make someone cry or cause shivers down the spine, the ability to cheer up crowds at a concert or soothe a baby in distress. It appears that the faculty of music is one that we industriously endeavour. The question is: what made us this way? Perhaps the evolution of language, emotion or sexual evolution can help to explain the origins of music. However, the theories of music evolution are diverse and on their own they do not provide a clear picture. The aim of this research is to evaluate the natural and sexual selection theories of music to see if an evolutionary argument can be made for the origins of music and its counterpart language. Therefore the question will be: What are the possible selection pressures for the evolution of music in relation to language? 5 1 THE SCIENCE OF EVOLUTIONARY MUSICOLOGY In providing a basic framework for the study of the biology of music, Wallin (1991) distinguished three branches in this field (fig. 1). The first of which, evolutionary musicology, deals with the origins of music and employs the data of the other two branches as well. In search of musical origins evolutionary musicologists look for clues provided by evolutionary psychology, archaeology, and animal studies like bird song but especially utterances of primates from chimpanzees, gorillas, bonobos, geladas, gibbons, and vervet monkeys. Apart from that evolutionary musicology makes use of data from neurological studies that consist mainly of fMRI studies for specific brain areas (whether or not shared with language); lesion or pathological studies like aphasia and amusia; and developmental studies with evidence of early innate musical abilities. Comparative studies can be carried out by making comparisons, of which there are two types. Comparative musicology (also referred to as ethnomusicology) is affected with comparisons between humans from different cultures or ethnical backgrounds. Comparative (or animal) psychology is concerned with comparisons between humans and animals, i. e. nonhuman animals (e. g. song -birds) and humanlike animals (e. g. primates). Fig. 1 Classification of the disciplines within biomusicology by Wallin (1991). This study is focussed on evolutionary musico logy. 6 1. 1 Types of evidence A clear view of the science of evolutionary musicology is made easier by tak ing a brief look at the types of evidence that are used to discover the origins of music. Genetic evidence. This would be the best type of evidence for an evolutionary account of music, but until now there has not been any solid evidence of a gene for e. g . musical talent or absolute pitch. Both Miller (2000) and Huron (2001) emphasize on the need for genetic evidence for the conclusiveness of the evolutionary origins of music. In the case of language however, the FOXP2 gene suggests some heredity of language (Enard t al. 2002). FOXP2 is a gene that is implicated in the development of language skills, including grammatical competence. It is possible that this gene could be relevant to music as well. Neurological evidence. The presence of specialized brain structures is consistent with innate developmental dispositions producing music abilities in contrast to solely due to learning or conditioning. However, specialized structures are neither a prerequisite nor a sufficiency for music to be an evolutionary adaptation. On the other hand, shared brain structures e. . with language would suggest a shared evolution in the past. Psychological evidence. These can range from developmental data of the early musical abilities of babies to cognitive data about the rules and mechanisms of the systems we call music and language. For a faculty, like music, to classify as a complex human adaptation there are several classic criteria (Miller, 2000). The fact that music satisfies the criterion of an orderly development schedule makes a strong evolutionary argument for its adaptive value. Ethological evidence. Ethology is the scientific study of animal behavior considered as a branche of zoology. It studies the instinctive natural traits as opposed to those found in laboratory environments. In the case of music, it is concerned with the consistency of musical behaviors with survival and propagation of genes. For example studies about the variety of alarm or mating calls from chaimpanzees to gibbons. Comparative evidence. Comparative psychology also studies animal behavior, but, as opposed to ethology, construes its study as a branch of psychology rather than as one of biology. Thus, where ethology sees the study of animal behavior in the context of what is known about animal anatomy and physiology, comparative psychology sees the study of animal behavior in the context of what is known about human psychology. Anthropological evidence. This is the evidence that coincides with comparative musicology. For example, different cultures are compared and when a universal feature is found it can be attributed to evolution. Selection pressures have caused a common design 7 feature among cultural diversity. For instance there is not a single culture or cummunity to be found on earth that does not engage in music. Thus, ubiquity is a sound evolutionary argument for music to have (had) adaptive value. Also, paleoanthropology can provide clues about the ideal circumstances in which music could have arisen. For example bipedalism has had a great influence on music development among others (Mithen, 2005). Archeological evidence. The earliest evidence of music is believed to be a bone flute although there is some debate about its authenticy of approximately 50,000 years old found in Divje Babe, Slovenia (Ivan Turk, 1995 in Mithen, 2005). Of course early hominids could have used sticks and stones prior to self-made instrument or simply singing for that matter but these clues are irretracable. Huron (2001) estimates the antiquity of music to be 250,000 years old. However, Mithen (2005) argues that before homonids could actually have begun to sing they had to have the ability to sing. Therfore selection pressures on music are dated back much further to 5 milion years ago were singing was becoming possible through means of other adaptations not directly related to music. Either way, the antiquity of music is another evolutionary argument for its adaptation. . 2 Pitfalls of an evolutionary theory of music When theorizing about the evolution of music one h as to be very cautious. The problem with evolutionary theories is the hindsight bias. It seduces us to post hoc reasoning; that particular adaptations were designed for a particular purpose, while in fact one should rather focus on why all the other designs have ceased t o exist. In other words, why has the surviving adaptation escaped the clean-up. There are some problems to tackle, which will become clear by attending to some basic questions. Is music an evolutionary adaptation? While most evidence is based on the assumption that there had to have been an evolution of music, this does not have to be necessarily so. There are several psychologists who do not think the evidence in support of music as an evolutionary adaptation is strong (e. g. Pinker, 1997; Huron, 2001). However, there is also no evidence that would pose a serious threat for an evolutionary theory of music. Moreover, according to Miller (2000) music satisfies many of the classis criteria for a complex adaptation. How could music have evolved? Present-day there are numerous possible candidates for the selection pressures of music evolution. These fall into all four categories: natural selection, sexual selection, group selection, and cultural selection. Moreover, Huron (2001) 8 argues that if music is indeed an evolutionary adaptation, then it will probably have a complex genesis. It could be built upon several other adaptations e. g. for language. It might represent several adaptations that are all placed under the same denominator i. e. music. It co uld be involving a complex co -evolution with culture. Or, it could be that music used to have survival value in the past but is now merely vestigial (e. g. like the human appendix, or tonsils). Thus, there are a lot of hypothesis to choose from. Do language and music have a common precursor? In extension to the previous question, there are distinct patterns of evolution (Hauser McDermott, 2003). Homoplasies are traits that started as two distinct lineages but ended in an evolutionary convergence (convergent evolution). Homologies are traits that are descendant from a common ancestor. Music is believed to be a homology to language. However, there are four possible theories for the evolution of music and speech: 1) music evolved from speech, 2) speech evolved from music, 3) both evolved from a common ancestor, or 4) music and language evolved in parallel to each other (Brown, 2000; Mithen, 2005). Are there language and music universals? Since Chomsky (1957), language is said to have a universal basis that can be found in all languages over the world. Chomsky points out to the fact that children learn language very fast and without much effort, which led him to think there is an innate language system. This system accounts for the fact that grammar is learned automatically and after learning the rules of language one can make infinite combinations of words with finite means. Because of its presumably shared history with language, music is also suggested to have such a universal. However, the notion of a musical grammar is contentious and only one theory (Lerdahl Jackendoff, 1983) has been put forward until now. Moreover, some studies show that grammar is not reserved to humans only. Starlings are able to recognize recursive grammar (Gentner et al. 2006), which is difficult to reconcile with the notion that recursion (the grammatical process of embedding) is attributed strictly to humans (Hauser et al. 2002). Also, several researchers suggest that language depends much on the use of holistic, that is prefabricate d, expressions (e. g. pig in a poke) instead of grammar (e. g. Wray, 2002). Is music a result of culture? While focusing on biological issues, it is wrong to assume that t he effects of culture on music were minimal. It seems implausible that the complexity o f music is due solely to the force of nature. Therefore, music evolution is bound to have had some cultural influence. 9 2 MUSIC AND LANGUAGE In trying to find out the origins of music and a possible evolutionary history with language it helps to look at t he similarities and differences between music and language. Similarities could serve as evidence for a dependence of music and language to the same underlying mechanisms, while the differences point to a divergence between the two. Of course one has to not e that similarities are no conclusive evidence of a common ancestor while these similarities could be the resulting homoplasies of a convergent evolution. In order for music to be a ‘language of emotion’ it would be forced to evolve into a system with language-like characteristics, implying a common origin. On the other hand, this line of thought is not very convincing because music and language have just too many important similarities for these to be chance occurrences alone, as pointed out by Brown (2000 ). At the same time Mithen (2005) argues that music is or eventually became too different from music to be a spin-off from language (Pinker, 1997). 2. Similarities concerning the human species and human society Universality. Music and language are universal among humans; they are present in all human societies. This can be observed not only on the level of societies or cultures but also on the individual level. Humans have a general capacity to acquire linguistic and musical competence. It is important to notice the unbalance between music and language production. Because language is far more practical for communicati on it is used more often than music and therefore it is practiced on a daily basis. This has the effect that the production of music is limited to a relatively small group of people leading to a non-universal appearance. Nevertheless, there are no unmusical people only untrained ones; after all, ‘unmusical’ people are perfectly capable of listening to and distinguishing patterns of sound. If music was taught as intensely as language in the early days at school, we could make music as easily as talking or writing. In other non-western cultures where more people engage in everyday music making, this unbalance exists indeed to a much lesser extent (Blacking, 1973). Human specificity. Both music and language are specific to the human species only. It is possible to consider bird song or gibbon duets ‘music’, but that would be a human interpretation. Music produced by animals has a simplistic and arbitrary nature and animals are not able to play with words or notes as humans are. 10 Cultural diversity. Among cultures there is a wide variety of music forms and present day more than six thousand languages are spoken in the world (Mithen, 2005). Like languages, cultural differences in music are determined by stylistic, geographical and social boundaries. The cultural diversity is a result of cultural transmission via generations and between societies, which makes identifying the boundaries difficult. For instance, when did Latin became Italian or Classical music became Romantic? It is also suggested that the cultural diversity is constrained by universal features underlying language and music (e. g. Blacking, 1973). 2. 2 Similarities concerning the structure of language and music Modes of expression. Music and language are the two primary acoustic communicative systems of our species. They both share three different modes of expression: vocally, physically, and in writing. Vocalizations are recognized in speech and song, body movement is used with sign language (or gestures) and dance, and both systems can be written down. Hierarchical structure. Because of its clear-cut description the following text is a citation of Sloboda’s notion of hierarchical structure: â€Å"It is common to consider a human language as comprising three components: phonology – a way of characterising the basic sound units of a language; syntax – the rules governing the way in which sound units are combined; and semantics – the way in which meaning is assigned to sound sequences. Music seems to break down quite naturally into the same three components† (Sloboda, 1985). Within the phonological level the acoustical elements of both music and language can be divided into two sublevels (Sherer Zentner, 2001). 1) Segmental features are the acoustic characteristics of the building blocks (segments) of a structure. In music, those building blocks are the individual sounds produced by the singing voice or an instrument, corresponding to phones of the phonemes (a set of phones) in speech. Segmental features are the features that describe the acoustic structure of the individual tone segments (building blocks). The segmental features are basically the same for music and language, namely: duration, energy, pitch, and – in the case of music timbre. 2) Suprasegmental features are defined by Sherer and Zentner as ‘the systematic configurational changes in sound sequences over time’, and lie on top of the segmental features. In speech these are for exa mple prosody, intonation and stress, while in music comparable features are melody, tempo and rhythm. Molino (2000) and Mithen (2005) underline the melodic and rhythmic component in speech, which is necessary to perform proper prosody and conversation. 1 Combinatorial systems. As mentioned above, language and music have a structure of hierarchical nature that consists of the small acoustic elements (words or tones) that can be combined into larger phrases (utterances or melodies) and those can be combined aga in to make linguistic or musical discourse (Mithen, 2005). These combinations can lead to recursion: a linguistic or mu sical phrase is embedded within another phrase of a similar type. With recursion an infinite range of expressions can be generated from a set of finite elements. While animals are constraint to a finite and small set of utterances in the communicative repertoire, humans can generate infinite numbers of novel sequences that they have never heard before (Hauser et al. , 2002). Thus music and language are both generative combinatorial systems. 2. 3 Differences Symbols. The nature of the discrete units (words or tones) in the hierarchical structures is completely different. Language uses symbols that have a referential meaning based on an arbitrary association between the symbols and the referent (e. g. dog’ refers to a hairy animal that barks but the word does not look or sound like a dog). In music the notes do not refer to anything not even emotions, so there are no symbols in music only emotional expressions. It is the holistic phrase in a piece of music that obtains an emotional load. The only meaning that music can have is that carnival music ‘means’ more to people below the rivers in Holland than for people above. This is similar to the not ion of Wagner’s use of ‘leitmotifs’ in his operas; although it represents something outside the scope of music, the message of the music itself remains without any literal meaning. However, the formulaic aspects of language (like in a saying for instance) have a greater similarity with music than we tend to think. Just like in music it makes no sense to separate the individual pieces of an expression because then the meaning of the expression is lost e. g. trying to translate the Dutch saying â€Å"met je neus in de boter vallen† word by word, does not contribute anything to its understanding. In a similar way separating the opening notes of Beethoven’s Fifth (e. g. by ten seconds) eliminates its meaning completely. Grammar. Because of the rules of grammar, ‘lion k ills man’ means something different than ‘man kills lion’. Chomsky stated with his ‘poverty of the stimulus’ argument that the acquisition of grammatical rules by children is too incredible considering that the grammar rules have to be abstracted from the utterances they hear. He therefore proposed that there is an innate set of predispositions, a ‘Universal Grammar’, in the human species, which 12 helps in acquiring grammar. Researchers like Lerdahl and Jackendoff (1983) went in search for a musical equivalent of the universal grammar but it soon turned out that the rules of musical style are fundamentally different from the rules of language. Unlike in ‘lion kills man’ changing the order of the notes in a piece of music does not change its meaning, because there is no meaning to be changed in the first place. Another difference between the rules of music and language is the change through time. Because language has to remain understandable to have a function it has to remain stable and therefore cannot change much (Mithen, 2005). Music on the other hand is changed a lot because deviation and renewal is appreciated in music. We can observe that language indeed changes at a much slower pace than musical styles evolve. For example the word ‘gay’ meant something different before the 1970’s but the number one on the top 40 hit -list changes every few weeks and a completely new music style can develop within years if not months. Information transmission. Music is a non-referential system of communication and lacks any clear communicative function. There is no information transmitted like in the case of language, but it can move us on a very deep level. Therefore music is said to be purely manipulative and language is said to be referential. However, language can be manipulative as well, for instance when somebody tells us something to do we are driven to action (Mithen, 2005). 2. 4 Independence between music and language To discover if the similarities and differences between music and language can be reduced to structures in the brain one is assigned to the domain of neuropsychology. From this discipline the lesion studies and studies of pathologies like amusia and aphasia provide a great deal of evidence. Amusia is a deficit in processing or producing music, while apha sia is the deficit in understanding or producing language (Mithen, 2005). Amusia can be congenital from birth -, or acquired after brain damage. There are also several types of aphasia. Broca’s aphasia is an intact understanding of language but the ina bility to speak. Wernicke’s aphasia is the reversal of this; while patients are able to speak but their utterances are meaningless and they cannot understand words that are spoken to them. Also differences in degradation can be distinguished; global aphasia comprises the whole loss of language abilities; anomic aphasia on the other hand is restricted to not being able to find the appropriate words when speaking. A t ypical case of aphasia is that of the Russian composer Shebalin who suffered a severe stroke in the temporal and parietal regions of his left hemisphere. He was not able to 13 understand people or make comprehensible utterances but his musical abilities remained untouched. During his disorder he even finished his Fifth symphony, which was considered a brilliant and artistic piece of music by his contemporaries. Other cases show similar symptoms but there is a lot of variation (Mithen, 2005). Some patients differ in the capacity to recognize environmental sounds, foreign languages and linguistic prosod y. Again others have different recovery rates for musical, verbal and environmental sound recognition. The existence of a dissociation between recognizing words, music, or environmental sounds suggests that there is not one but rather two distinct modules for processing auditory information: one for speech and one for sound (Peretz Coltheart, 2003). In the cases of amusia patients